4 Structure

Learn—Structure

What Is Coherence?

Cohesive writing is sticky writing. What makes it stick?

Every idea is clearly related to the one that came before; the ideas stick together. Sticky writing starts with a sticky structure. Everything you write that you intend to publish (let someone else read) must have a structure.

Even the shortest of emails needs a structure; otherwise, it’s going to sound like stream of consciousness. Have you received any of those emails lately? However, before you worry about the structure, you must choose your approach.

Whether a document is short or long, whether it’s an email or formal report, you have two choices: direct approach or indirect approach.

Direct Approach

When you use a direct approach, you get directly to the point. You don’t start with any polite chitchat or formalities. You simply state the point you want to make and go from there. Americans are very comfortable with the direct approach, but not every culture is. If you are writing to someone from another country, say China, you need to consider their preferences regarding the approach that you use because many cultures prefer a highly polite, indirect approach for all writing situations. A great deal of information about this topic is available on the internet, so do your homework. When should you use the direct approach?

• When giving good news. Everyone likes to get good news, so get to it.
• When the information or request is simple and neutral. For example, if you are reminding your team members that you have a meeting scheduled for the next day, no one is going to be upset or concerned, so you can get to the point.
• If someone requested information from you. If you are responding to a direct request for information, the other person understands the context, so you can be direct.

The direct approach doesn’t always work. If the communication situation is more complicated, you may need to use an indirect approach.

Indirect Approach

When you use an indirect approach, you begin with a buffer intended to help you gain the goodwill or cooperation of the reader. Sometimes we have to tell people things they don’t want to hear, but if we do it persuasively and demonstrate that we are empathetic to their position, we can increase the chance of a positive outcome and decrease the chance of an unpleasant escalation.

Use the indirect approach when:

• You are giving bad news. No one wants to be told that they didn’t get the promotion, or the raise, or the sale. Unfortunately, no one wins all of the time, and you will have to share bad news. By creating a buffer, you give yourself the opportunity to point out the positive first. You can also acknowledge the person’s feelings.
• You can demonstrate the positive side of the situation.

Let’s imagine that your company is initiating a new dress policy because people are getting a little too casual. It’s your job to send out a company-wide email making everyone aware of this change. Which approach is better?

Dress Code Example 1

Dress Code Example 2

Both paragraphs provide the same information: you may have to change how you dress. However, the way that message is shared is very different.

The first paragraph demonstrates no gratitude to the employees and directly insults them by saying they dress like slobs. The new plan is called a “code” and it comes with “rules.” Both of those words have unpleasant baggage.

The second paragraph begins positively and explains that the new “initiative” is intended to benefit the employees. No criticism is given, and no blame is cast. Also, a rational reason is given for the initiative: our clients react to how we look. Because everyone benefits when the company succeeds, employees will be likely to cooperate happily. Let’s look at the basic structure of both approaches.

Direct

1. Reason for writing
2. Background information if needed
3. Request and/or information
4. Closing

Indirect

1. Buffer
2. Reason for writing
3. Background information if needed
4. Request and/or information
5. Closing

Once you choose your approach, you need to create your structure. To create a sticky structure, you must do the following:

• Write an effective introduction.
• Provide relevant, supporting paragraphs with strong topic sentences and transitions.
• Write a strong conclusion.

The introduction is perhaps the most important part of any document because it prepares the reader for what follows. If the introduction is not effective, the reader may not read any further.

Writing an Effective Introductory Paragraph

If you want to encourage your reader to keep reading, you need to write an interesting and relevant introduction. You will give the readers important information that they need in order to understand the rest of your document. All introductions must include a sentence that states the main idea and a road map to guide the reader throughout the rest of the document.

The main idea or thesis of a document should state the purpose of the document. Why are you writing this document? Stating the main idea up front creates context for readers to understand the details that follow in your document. If you don’t provide the necessary context and main idea for your readers, then they may have to reread the passage. If that is the case, you have failed as the writer. Your readers should always have a clear understanding of your main idea after they read the introduction.

In addition to including an effective introduction, you need to provide your readers with a road map, so they know what information you plan to discuss in the remainder of the document. A road map clearly sets the readers’ expectations by briefly outlining the rest of the document.

The road map should state the main sections of the document. Doing so introduces the readers to the way you have organized your document and puts them at ease because they know what is coming up in the document. Road maps do not have to be lengthy; they simply have to state the order of the rest of the document.

Here is an example of a well-written introduction, but yes, the topic is just for fun:

This introduction gives readers a clear understanding of who the target audience is (teachers), why the writer is writing this article (thesis), and how the document is organized (road map). If the readers were zombies and wanted to know how to survive and spread zombititis to others, this article would not help them. Understanding purpose and audience is crucial to writing a good introduction.

Writing Coherent Supporting Paragraphs

As a writer, your goal is to write paragraphs that provide the reader with unity and coherence—the cornerstone to a well-written document.

All supporting paragraphs should have:

• A topic sentence
• Supporting sentences
• A concluding sentence (oftentimes transitions to the next paragraph)
• Transitions

If written correctly, these sentences combine together to create coherent paragraphs that flow together, so your reader can easily understand the supporting content you are providing in the document.

Topic Sentence

The first sentence in a paragraph is your topic sentence and works like a purpose statement for the paragraph. This sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. The supporting sentences must support the topic sentence. If not, your paragraph lacks coherence. Think of each paragraph as a mini-paper that has a unifying idea. Next, connect each sentence in the paragraph logically to the preceding sentence(s).

Supporting Sentences

Strong supporting sentences unify a paragraph. If a sentence does not fit with the topic sentence, you have three options for correcting it:

1. Rewrite your topic sentence.
2. Delete the sentence.
3. Find another more suitable place for it in your paper.

Oftentimes, deleting something from a document can be painful, but for the sake of coherence, you need to do it. Also be careful that your supporting sentences are not repetitive. You can say the same thing in many different ways. You may find that you have to delete a sentence or two because you’ve repeated the same information in two different ways. To avoid repetition, you must carefully revise your paper.

Concluding Sentence

In addition to strong, cohesive supporting sentences, you need to conclude each paragraph with a sentence that sums up what you’ve just talked about and, in some cases, introduces the new topic for the next paragraph. A sentence that restates the old information and introduces new information that will appear in the next paragraph is called a transition sentence. Here are examples of each type:

Transitional sentence

Now that you understand passive constructions, we will talk about nominalizations.

Concluding sentence

Now that you have read this guide, you should have a basic understanding of the principles of professional communication.

Transitions

As you write, you will use transitions: words or phrases that help bring two ideas together. Transitional words and phrases help to provide the reader with the unity and coherence we mentioned earlier. Certain words help continue an idea, indicate a shift of thought or contrast, or sum up a conclusion. The following list of words will help you to write paragraphs that will pull your sentences and paragraphs together.

Showing Similarity

• likewise
• moreover
• similarly

Showing Contrast

• instead
• otherwise
• even so
• however
• on the other hand
• but
• yet
• nevertheless
• on the contrary

Showing Results

• accordingly
• as a result
• because
• consequently
• hence
• since
• therefore
• thus

Continuing an Idea

• also
• besides
• first (second, third, etc.)
• likewise
• similarly
• clearly
• then
• furthermore
• additionally
• and
• in addition
• moreover
• because

Drawing Conclusions

• as a result
• finally
• in brief
• in conclusion
• to summarize

Pointing out Examples

• for example
• for instance
• to illustrate

Showing Emphasis and Clarity

• above all
• after all
• again
• besides
• in other words
• specifically
• nonetheless
• that is

Conceding a Point

• granted that
• of course
• to be sure
• admittedly

Indicating Time

• after
• afterward
• as soon as
• at first
• at last
• before
• before long
• finally
• in the meantime
• later
• while
• meanwhile
• next
• now
• once
• previously
• subsequently
• until
• soon
• then
• immediately

Separating Sections of a Paragraph That Is Arranged Chronologically

• first . . . second . . . third
• generally . . . furthermore . . . finally
• in the first place . . . also . . . lastly
• to be sure . . . additionally . . . lastly
• basically . . . similarly . . . as well

Signaling a Conclusion

• therefore
• this
• hence
• in final analysis
• in conclusion
• in final consideration
• indeed

Choosing the right transitions is as important as using them. Transitions will help your document flow better and provide unity for the overall document.

Writing a Strong Concluding Paragraph

A conclusion sums up a document and signals that the discussion has been completed. A concluding paragraph should restate the main idea (purpose) and summarize the main points that you made in the document. The conclusion should not introduce new material that is irrelevant to your document.

For example, the conclusion for the zombititis article might look like this:

This conclusion does a good job of repeating the main sections discussed in the article and reiterating the main idea: how teachers can help to stop the spread of zombification.

The conclusion is the last impression a reader has of your document. Be sure to take the time to write a strong conclusion.

As the writer, you should give some serious thought to your conclusion and help your readers know what you want them to take away from reading your document. A strong conclusion may be the difference between receiving funding for a research project or not.

Assess—Structure

1. Introductions are always optional.
   a. True
   b. False
2. Which of the following items does an effective introduction NOT include?
   a. A statement of purpose
   b. A road map
   c. At least one interesting quote
   d. A transitional sentence
3. This an effective introduction to an email:
   Hey, hey, hey. Please read this email carefully.
   a. True
   b. False
4. The following statement accurately describes a topic sentence:
   The first sentence in a paragraph is your topic sentence, and it works like a purpose statement for the paragraph. This sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.
   a. True
   b. False
5. What is the purpose of a supporting sentence? Choose each option that fits.
   a. To provide examples that support the topic sentence
   b. To introduce a new topic to keep the paragraph interesting
   c. To provide specific details
   d. To provide evidence to prove your statement is true, such as quotes or paraphrases from outside sources
   e. To provide contrasting opinions
6. Which of the following sentences uses the transitional word “because” most effectively?
   a. I like pizza because I like tacos.
   b. I have scheduled a meeting of our team because we will meet Monday at 10:00 am.
   c. I have scheduled a meeting of our team because we need to finish our project.
   d. Because I have scheduled a meeting, it is Monday at 10:00 am.
7. Which of the following does NOT describe what a conclusion does?
   a. Introduce a new idea
   b. Restate the main idea (purpose)
   c. Summarize the main points that you made in the document
   d. If appropriate, let the reader know how to get more information
8. Transitions will help your document flow better and provide unity for the overall document.
   a. True
   b. False
9. The transitional word in the following sentence shows what relationship between ideas?
   To finish this project, we must meet with the software engineers. Next, we should user test the software.
   a. Cause and effect
   b. Chronology
   c. Comparison
   d. Contrast
10. Is this statement true or false?
    Every paragraph, with the exception of your conclusion, should end with a transitional sentence.
    a. True
    b. False

Engage—Structure

The following example, “How to Write Concise, Accurate Sentences,” has issues with its structure:

Your Task

Now that you have read the article, complete the following steps:

1. Choose three principles from the list below:
   Includes an effective introduction
   Includes effective supporting paragraphs
   Includes an effective conclusion
   Uses transitions within sentences
   Uses transitions between sentences
2. Write a memo in which you discuss how effectively the example follows the principles you chose.
3. Use examples from the example to support your claims.
4. Use your readings to support your claims.
5. Follow best practices for writing memos.
6. Post your memo.
7. Respond to three of your classmate’s posts. Give them feedback on both their analysis of the example and the quality of their memo.

Apply—Structure

Please read the following scenario.

Your Task

For this assignment, you will write the memo on professional structure. Follow these tips:

1. Focus on three issues.
2. Use your class readings to back up your recommendations.
3. Provide original examples.
4. Follow the practices for effectively structuring a professional document when writing your memo.

Assignment Rubric