2 Correctness

Learn—Correctness

One of the best ways to ensure that others consider you a professional is to write like a professional, and professional writers don’t make careless mistakes. Consider this: If you attended a presentation, would you take the information you received seriously if the speaker showed up wearing ratty jeans, flip-flops, and a stained T-shirt?

What if the speaker passed out handouts that they’d handwritten in purple pen with words crossed out and replaced?

Fair or not, impressions matter, and when you are not physically present, your writing represents you. If your writing includes errors, you are damaging your credibility and increasing the likelihood that your readers will assume

• You don’t know any better
• You’re too lazy to proofread
• You don’t care
• You can’t be trusted to do a good job

If this is how your colleagues assess your abilities, your career is in serious danger.

I understand that learning about grammar and punctuation might not be your idea of fun. Honestly, I don’t love exercising, but I exercise because I know the benefits outweigh the negatives (pain, sweat, etc.). The same is true when it comes to learning how to write correctly. Besides, you must know it’s important, or you wouldn’t have chosen this book! Grammar and punctuation are big topics, and we could devote hundreds of pages to them. But our goal isn’t to cover everything.

Our goal is to give you the big pictures so that you can avoid making the most common errors. If you want more detail, you can buy the Chicago Manual of Style.

We’ll cover these topics in this module:

• Parts of speech
• Clauses
• Phrases
• Sentence types
• Agreement
• Quotation marks, colons, and apostrophes

If we break something complicated into pieces, we can understand it more easily, so we’re going to start by looking at the basic building blocks of any sentence—the parts of speech, the clause, and the phrase.

Parts of Speech

Before you can understand either grammar or punctuation, you have to understand the basic pieces of a sentence.

We use nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections:

Part of Speech	Definition	Example
Noun	person, place, or thing	woman, house, Australia
Pronoun	a word used in place of a noun	he, his, they, it
Verb	a word that expresses action	run, walk, seem, is, write
Adverb	a word that describes anything other than a noun	quickly, cautiously, well
Adjective	a word that describes a noun	old, broken, intelligent
Article	a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase	a, an, the
Prepositions	words that identify time or position	before, until, with, under
Conjunctions	words that combine a series of words, phrases, or clauses	and, but, however
Interjections	words used to express strong emotions	ouch!, wow!, darn!

You will combine the parts of speech to form clauses and phrases.

Clauses

There are two types of clauses:

• Independent (a complete sentence): I ate dinner.
• Dependent (not a complete sentence): although I ate dinner.

A sentence must have at least one independent clause, but it does not have to have a dependent clause.

Independent clauses must have both a noun and a verb.

• The noun acts as the subject of the sentence—who or what is doing the action of the verb.
• The verb and any adverbs or adjectives make up the predicate.

Independent clauses can also be called simple sentences:

independent clause = simple sentence

Every sentence must have a subject.

Subjects

The bones of a sentence are its subject. The subject is either who or what is doing the action of the sentence’s verb, or what the sentence is about:

The subject is bolded in the following examples

In the first sentence, the dog performs the action, and in the second sentence, Nancy does. In the last sentence, the meeting tells us what the sentence is about.

The subject is like the bones of a body because it supports everything happening in the sentence. Subjects come in different forms, but usually subjects are one of these:

Nouns

A person, place, or thing (e.g., Michael, the woman, the experiment)

Gerunds

A participial verb (a verb that ends in ing) being used as a noun (e.g., smoking, running, eating)

Pronouns

A noun that renames someone or something (e.g., he, she, it, they, we, us, there)

Relative pronouns

A pronoun that begins a relative clause (a type of dependent clause) (e.g., who, whom, which, that)

Below are more examples of different subjects.

Examples of parts of speech

Part of Speech	Definition	Example	In Action
Noun	A person, place, or thing	Michael, the report, the supervisor	The CFO approved the budget.
Gerund	A participial verb (a verb that ends in “ing”) used as a noun	Smoking, running, managing	Managing monthly expenditures is part of the job.
Pronoun	A noun that renames something	He, she, it, they, we, us, this, these	He accepted the position.
Relative Pronouns	A pronoun that begins with a relative clause	Who, whom, which, that	My supervisor, who has worked here five years, just received a promotion.

Subjects don’t work alone. They need verbs to make things happen.

Verbs

The portion of the sentence that contains the verb is called the predicate. The predicate is everything that comes after the subject.

Predicates in action

Subject	Predicate
I	submitted the proposal to Gary.
George	sold his father’s clothes to the thrift shop.
Bob	wants a new car for Christmas.

The predicate always contains a verb and may also contain a direct object, possibly an indirect object, or a subject complement. Nouns always act as objects and complements. The verb will determine which of these it contains. The muscle of a clause is the verb—the word or words that provide the action.

There are four types of verbs:

• Transitive
• Intransitive
• Linking
• To be

Transitive Verbs

A transitive verb always takes a direct object. The direct object tells us to whom or what the action was done.

Direct Objects

A transitive verb needs a direct object to complete its meaning. This is because a transitive verb indicates an action that must be done to someone or something. For example, you can’t just “throw” you must throw something. The something you throw is the direct object of the verb:

In each case, the subject of the sentence does the action (threw, bought, lifted) to something (fit, car, load).

Indirect Objects

A direct object may be followed by an indirect object—a noun or pronoun that tells to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done. For example, if you throw a ball, you normally throw it to someone. If you serve dinner, you serve it to someone.

Look at these examples:

Indirect objects can also come before direct objects:

As you can see, indirect objects can come before or after the direct object. Unlike transitive verbs, intransitive verbs do not need an object to complete their meaning.

Intransitive Verbs

An intransitive verb makes sense all by itself and doesn’t require an object to take its action. For example, you have to throw something, but you don’t have to sleep something. You just sleep. Look at these examples:

Although intransitive verbs don’t have objects, they can have adverbs that describe how the action was done:

Linking

A linking verb links the subject and subject complement. The subject complement describes or identifies the subject. The linking verbs include:

look

• become
• stay
• seem
• grow
• prove
• smell
• appear
• remain
• feel
• sound

Linking verbs are always followed by a subject complement. The subject complement describes or renames the subject:

To Be Verbs

To be verbs include all forms of the verb “to be”:

• to be
• am
• was
• being
• is
• were
• been
• are
• have been

Like linking verbs, to-be verbs are followed by a subject complement:

While every clause must have a subject and a verb, not every clause is independent. In fact, there are three types of clauses:

• Independent
• Dependent
• Relative

Understanding the difference between these three is crucial to your understanding of what a sentence is and how to punctuate it.

Types of Clauses

You already know that a clause has a subject and a predicate—which should mean that all clauses can stand alone. However, some clauses have been weakened by the addition of a word called a “subordinating conjunction.”

Subordinating conjunctions make clauses so weak they must depend on another clause to complete their meaning and support them. These weak clauses are called “dependent” clauses because they cannot stand alone and must be supported by an independent clause. Clauses that begin with relative pronouns are called relative clauses. They cannot stand alone either unless they are questions. Let’s look at each type of clause:

Independent Clauses

An independent clause is a simple sentence that can stand alone. It has both a subject and a verb, and depending on the type of verb, either a direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or phrase:

While an independent clause can stand alone, a dependent clause must be combined with an independent clause because the independent clause completes its meaning.

Dependent Clauses

When you add a subordinating conjunction to an independent clause, you make it dependent. The following is a list of commonly used subordinating conjunctions:

• after
• because
• in order that
• than
• when
• although
• before
• now that
• that
• whenever
• though
• where
• as if
• even
• though
• rather than
• till
• whereas
• as long as
• if
• since
• unless
• wherever
• as though
• if only
• so that
• until
• while

Placing any of these words at the beginning of an independent clause will make it dependent.

In each of the examples above, we combined a dependent clause that would not make sense alone, with an independent clause that completed its meaning.

Tip	We’ll talk about this more later, but notice that you only put a comma AFTER a dependent clause when it comes BEFORE the independent clause.

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are also dependent, but in this case, they are dependent because they begin with a relative pronoun:

• which
• what
• who
• whom
• that
• whatever
• whose
• whoever
• whomever

Like a dependent clause, a relative clause must combine with an independent clause that finishes its meaning, unless it is used as a question:

Relative clauses can be independent when they are questions:

You can’t have a sentence without a clause. Phrases, on the other hand, are optional rather than required.

Phrases

Phrases aren’t essential, but they add detail and interest. They add style.

A phrase is a string of two or more words, but it can’t stand alone as a sentence because it doesn’t have both a subject and a verb; it has one or the other but not both. Consequently, phrases can provide extra information about the subject or verbs of an independent clause, and they can act as the object or complement of the subject. However, phrases cannot stand alone:

In this example, the phrase “until last night” tells us when the action of the independent clause “I slept in a warm bed” occurred.

In this example, we have two phrases. The first, “for the next seven days,” tells us when the action occurs, and the second phrase, “on the hard ground,” tells us where.

In this sentence, the phrase “big brown” describes Tina’s eyes, while the phrase “in front of her” tells us where the text is.

In this last example, the phrase “long evening walks” acts as the direct object of enjoy.

Phrases come in many types, but they all have one thing in common; they have either a subject OR a verb, not both:

Prepositional phrases

Begin with prepositions: under the bridge, over the rainbow, into the wild

Verbal phrases

Begin with some form of a verb: running the meeting, to wander the world, determined to win

Gerund phrases

Like gerunds, always act as nouns: smoking paraphernalia, swimming gear

Noun phrases

Can work as adjectives and describe other nouns, or they can be subject complements or objects:

Now that you understand the building blocks of a sentence, let’s talk about the different types of sentences. But first, let’s look at one of those reviews we promised.

Review

You can find all the review answers in the appendix at the end of the book.

Review 1

Identify each of the following as either a phrase, an independent clause, or a dependent clause.

1. Presenting the report
2. The engineers wrote it
3. Although they collaborated with the chemists
4. Late last night
5. From the board of directors

Review 2

Identify each clause (in bold) as dependent, independent, or relative.

1. Although I worked all night, I still didn’t finish my report.
2. I didn’t finish because I lost my power, and I hadn’t saved my file.
3. I should know better since I’ve been working as a technical communicator for five years.
4. I had to start from scratch, which was very frustrating.
5. Since I’ve never missed a deadline before, my team leader gave me an extension.

Review 3

For each sentence, identify the subject; identify the verb; determine if the verb is transitive, intransitive, linking, or to be; and determine if the verb has a direct object, indirect object, or subject complement.

1. For many people, working from home is a new experience.
2. It was for me.
3. At first, I felt unmotivated, but I learned to stick to a schedule.
4. I have become very productive, and I can do more in less time because I have no distractions.
5. I will continue to work from home after the quarantine is lifted.

Sentence Types

Now that you are familiar with the pieces that make up a sentence, you can begin combining those pieces to make the four types of sentences:

• Simple
• Compound
• Complex
• Compound complex

To make it easier, we will use these abbreviations:

Term	Abbreviation
Independent clause	IC
Dependent clause	DC
Coordinating conjunction	CC
Subordinating conjunction	SC
Conjunctive adverb	CA
Correlative conjunction	COC
Phrase	P
Comma	C
Semicolon	Semi

We suggest you print out this list of abbreviations and keep it by your computer for quick reference.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is one independent clause and possibly one or more phrases. A phrase can come at the beginning of the sentence, at the end of the sentence, or in the middle of the sentence. A simple sentence never has more than one independent clause and never has a dependent clause.

Look at these examples. Each sentence is followed by its formula:

Note	At the end of this chapter, we’ll provide a list of all the formulas. Print that also!

Punctuating Simple Sentences

Simple sentences are easy to punctuate because you only need to remember a few rules:

A simple sentence with no phrases requires only a period at the end.

When a phrase comes before the independent clause, you follow it with a comma.

When a phrase comes after an independent clause, you don’t need a comma.

Simple sentences are very useful, but compound sentences let you show relationships between ideas.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses and may include phrases. You can combine independent clauses using

• Coordinating conjunctions
• Conjunctive adverbs
• Correlative conjunctions

Because the punctuation is different for each, you need to know the difference.

You can find a list of these terms on the following pages:

• Coordinating conjunctions, pp. 44-45
• Conjunctive adverbs, pp. 45-46
• Correlative conjunctions, p. 46

Tip	It is absolutely essential that you learn the words in these lists because the difference between using a comma and a semicolon is based on whether it follows a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions combine independent clauses to make compound sentences. Because the list is short, you can easily memorize it:

• and
• but
• for
• nor
• or
• so
• yet

Each of these words indicates a different relationship between the two independent clauses it combines, so choose carefully. These words help your reader understand the relationships between the concepts you are explaining:

• And: in addition to
• But: contrast
• For: as a result of
• Nor: neither
• Or: one or the other
• So: cause and effect
• Yet: thus, as a result of

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs also combine one independent clause with another. However, because you have many more from which to choose, you can show more sophisticated relationships between ideas:

• accordingly
• furthermore
• meanwhile
• similarly
• also
• hence
• moreover
• still
• anyway
• however
• nevertheless
• then
• besides
• incidentally
• next
• thereafter
• certainly
• indeed
• nonetheless
• therefore
• consequently
• instead
• now
• thus
• finally
• likewise
• otherwise
• undoubtedly

Again, you must choose carefully to ensure that your sentences mean what you intend:

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are only used in pairs, and they link grammatically equal units—like independent clauses:

• both-and
• neither-nor
• either-or
• not only–but also
• just as–so
• whether-or

To use a correlative conjunction, place one comma after the first independent clause:

Punctuating Compound Sentences

We use three types of punctuation—periods, semicolons, and commas—to punctuate compound sentences. However, as I said before, in order to know which punctuation mark to use, you must recognize what type of word is combining the clauses you write:

• Coordinating conjunction
• Conjunctive adverb
• Correlative conjunction

Coordinating Conjunctions

To create a compound sentence using a coordinating conjunction, follow these rules:

1. Place a comma after the first clause.
2. Place the coordinating conjunction after the comma.

The formula is simple:

Conjunctive Adverbs

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs take both semicolons and commas. To use a conjunctive adverb, follow these rules:

1.  Place a semicolon after the first independent clause.
2. Place a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

You need an independent clause on either side of the conjunctive adverb in order to use a semicolon and comma. Otherwise you only use commas with the conjunctive adverb.

Correlative Conjunctions

Like coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions only take a comma. Follow these rules when using them:

1. Place the first correlative conjunction at the beginning of the first clause.
2. Place a comma after the first clause.
3. Place the second correlative conjunction at the beginning of the second clause.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence must have two things—at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

The dependent clause can come first or last. A clause is made independent when you add one of these as the first word of the clause:

• Subordinating conjunction
• Relative pronoun

Subordinating Conjunctions

Below is a list of commonly used subordinating conjunctions:

• after
• if
• though
• although
• in order that
• unless
• as
• now that
• until
• as if
• once
• when
• as though
• rather than
• whenever
• because
• since
• where
• before
• so that
• whereas
• even though
• that
• wherever

Relative Pronouns

A clause can also be made dependent by the addition of a relative pronoun:

• that
• which
• whom
• what
• who
• whoever
• whatever
• whose
• whomever

Punctuating Complex Sentences

Creating complex sentences using subordinating conjunctions allows you to show how one idea is supported by another.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Consider the following rules when using coordinating conjunctions:

1. Add a subordinating conjunction to either the first or second of your independent clauses.
2. If the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, place a comma after it.

       3. If the dependent clause is last, you do not need any punctuation but a period at the end.

Relative Pronouns

When you use relative pronouns, how you punctuate is based on whether the information in the clause is essential or extra.

Essential: Use “who” or “that”

1. If the clause is essential but does not refer to a person, use “that” or “who” and do not use commas.

The only information that identifies the doctor is the fact that she pronounced the victim dead.

Because we are comparing two types of the same thing, love, the description of each type is essential, so no commas are needed. Also, notice that the dependent clause is embedded with the independent clause:

2. If the clause does not contain essential information, start it with “which” and use commas. Also refer to people as “who” or “whom” whether the information is essential or not.

The person who found the victim is identified by his name, so where he lives is not essential.

The writer has identified each car by its color, so the information about its location in not essential and commas were used.

Compound Complex Sentences

A compound complex sentence is exactly what it sounds like—a combination of a compound sentence with a complex sentence. So it must have these elements:

• At least two independent clauses combined with either a coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverb, or correlative conjunction.
• At least one dependent clause.

Punctuating Compound Complex Sentences

The great thing about punctuating compound complex sentences is that you simply use the rules that you have already learned for compound and complex sentences.

Coordinating Conjunction

When you use a coordinating conjunction,

1. Place a comma after the first independent clause.
2. Place the coordinating conjunction after the comma.
3. Place the dependent clause either before or after either independent clause.

Conjunctive Adverb

When you use a conjunctive adverb,

1. Place a semicolon after the first independent clause.
2. Place a subordinating conjunction after the semicolon.
3. Place a comma after the subordinating conjunction.
4. Follow this with another independent clause.
5. Add a dependent clause before or after one of the independent clauses.

Correlative Conjunction

When you use a correlative conjunction,

1. Place the first correlative conjunction at the beginning of the first independent clause.
2. Place the second correlative conjunction at the beginning of the second clause.
3. Add a dependent clause before or after one of the independent clauses.

Either human pollution is to blame or environmental pollution is to blame because it cannot be both.

Review Exercises

Review 1

Identify each sentence type.

1. Because the workplace is global, we must improve our communication skills.
2. Regardless of your area of expertise, you need to be an effective communicator if you want to move up the career ladder.
3. You must know how to communicate verbally and in writing.
4. Although both skills are important, most employers rank writing as the most important skill, so you must develop your skills as a writer.
5. Whether you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to clients, the way you write can either boost or hamper your progression within the organization.

Review 2

Identify the phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses in each sentence.

1. Because the workplace is global, we must improve our communication skills.
2. Regardless of your area of expertise, you need to be an effective communicator if you want to move up the career ladder.
3. You must know how to communicate verbally and in writing.
4. Although both skills are important, most employers rank writing as the most important skill, so you must develop your skills as a writer.
5. Because you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to clients, the way you write can either boost or hamper your progression within the organization.

Review 3

Correct the punctuation in the following sentences.

1. Your skills as a writer apply to more than just writing emails, because business is all about presentation.
2. Owners aim to set up an effective online presence; and, that online presence requires content.
3. Online content helps potential customers discover the company and its products so to attain this goal, companies create websites, blogs, and social media accounts.
4. Quality content is a decisive factor here, therefore a person, who can present business in the best light and convince people to buy products or services, is an irreplaceable employee.
5. It is time to improve your business communication skills, otherwise, your coworkers will leave you behind.

Answer Key

Review 1

Identify each sentence type.

1. Because the workplace is global, we must improve our communication skills.
   This sentence is complex.
2. Regardless of your area of expertise, you need to be an effective communicator if you want to move up the career ladder.
   This sentence is compound.
3. You must know how to communicate verbally and in writing.
   This sentence is simple.
4. Although both skills are important, most employers rank writing as the most important skill, so you must develop your skills as a writer.
   This sentence is compound complex.
5. Whether you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to clients, the way you write can either boost or hamper your progression within the organization.
   This sentence is complex.

Review 2

Identify the phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses in each sentence.

1. Because the workplace is global (DC), we must improve our communication skills (IC).
   The subordinating conjunction “because” makes the clause “because the workplace is global” dependent. The next clause, “we must improve our communication skills is an independent clause that contains the phrase, “our communication skills,” which acts as the direct object of “improve.”
2. Regardless of your area of expertise (P), you need to be an effective communicator (IC) if you want to move up the career ladder (DC).
   “Regardless of your area of expertise” is a phrase because it has no verb; because of your expertise, what? The phrase modifies the independent clause, which is combined with a dependent clause using the subordinating conjunction “if.”
3. You must know how to communicate (phrase as direct object) verbally and in writing (phrase acting as indirect object) (IC).
   The phrase “how to communicate” is the direct object of the verb “know” because it answers the question, What must you know? “Verbally and in writing” is the indirect object of “communicate” because it answers the question, How must you communicate?
4. Although both skills are important (DC), most employers rank writing as the most important skill (IC), so you must develop your skills as a writer (IC).
   Because it begins with the subordinating conjunction “although,” the clause “although both skills are important” is dependent. The next independent clause finishes its meaning and is combined with the last independent clause by the coordinating conjunction “so.”
5. Because you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to clients (DC), the way you write can either boost or hamper your progression within the organization (IC).
   “Because you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to clients” is dependent because it begins with the subordinating conjunction “because.” Its meaning is completed by the independent clause that follows.

Review 3

Correct the punctuation in the following sentences.

1. Your skills as a writer apply to more than just writing emails, because business is all about presentation.
   The comma after “emails” should be deleted because the dependent clause comes AFTER the independent clause.
2. Owners aim to set up an effective online presence; and, that online presence requires content.
   Change the semicolon after “presence” to a comma, and remove the comma after “and.” “And” is a coordinating conjunction, so it only takes a comma.
3. Online content helps potential customers discover the company and its products, so to attain this goal, companies create websites, blogs, and social media accounts.
   Because “so” is a coordinating conjunction combining two independent clauses, a comma is needed after the first independent clause.
4. Quality content is a decisive factor here, therefore a person who can present business in the best light and convince people to buy products or services is an irreplaceable employee.
   Because “therefore” is a conjunctive adverb, a semicolon goes after the first independent clause, and a comma goes after “therefore.”
5. It is time to improve your business communication skills, otherwise, your coworkers will leave you behind.
   Because “otherwise” is a conjunctive adverb, a semicolon goes after the first independent clause, and a comma goes after “otherwise.”

Agreement

When we think about agreeing, we think about sharing the same opinion with someone else. Actually, grammatical agreement isn’t that different. When we say a sentence agrees, we mean that the elements in the sentence are either all singular or all plural, all first, second, or third person. Specifically, we need to understand

• Subject-verb agreement
• Noun-antecedent agreement

Because you are already very familiar with subjects and verbs, we’ll start there.

Subject-Verb Agreement

As you already know, every sentence has both a subject and a verb. When we are making sure our subjects and verbs agree, that’s what we focus on. We can ignore any phrases or objects.

Let’s look at some examples:

Subjects can be both singular and plural:

• Someone/all
• Child/children
• Business/businesses
• Project manager / project managers

Verbs take their form from the subject, so a singular subject must have a singular noun or vice versa:

• Someone is / all are
• Child runs / children run
• Business grows / businesses grow
• Project managers manage / project managers manage

On the surface, this might seem simple, but it is easy to get confused when phrases come between the subject and the verb.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. Antecedents can come before or after the pronouns that replace them. The antecedent is the word for which the pronoun stands:

Types of Pronouns

Personal Pronouns
Definition:	Stands for a person or thing
Examples:	I, me, mine, our, you, your, he, she, it, its, him, his, her, they, them, their, and theirs
In action:	She (pronoun) is my supervisor (antecedent).

Indefinite Pronouns
Definitions:	Does not refer to a specific person or thing and doesn’t require an antecedent
Examples:	another, any, each, few, many, some, nothing, one, anyone, everyone, everybody, everything, someone, something, either, and neither
In action:	Some (pronoun) of you (antecedent) aren’t listening. Nothing (pronoun) will ever get done if we (antecedent) don’t stop wasting time.

Reflexive Pronouns
Definition:	Ends with “self”; person who initiated the contact
Examples:	myself, yourself, oneself, themselves, ourselves, yourselves
Usage:	The engineer (antecedent) didn’t run the experiment himself (pronoun). You (antecedent) aren’t doing yourself (pronoun) any favors.

Intensive Pronouns
Definition:	Emphasizes a noun or pronoun that comes right before it; has the same form as reflexive pronouns
Examples:	myself, yourself, oneself, themselves, ourselves, yourselves
Usage:	The athlete (antecedent) herself (pronoun) admitted that she hadn’t trained hard enough.

Interrogative Pronouns
Definition:	Begins a question and does not require an antecedent
Examples:	who, which, what, whom, whose, whoever, whatever, whomever, whichever
Usage:	Who (pronoun) wrote the proposal? Whatever (pronoun) you decide is fine with me.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Definition:	Identifies a particular thing or group
Examples:	this, that, these, those
Usage:	This (pronoun) is my project (antecedent). That (pronoun) is your responsibility (antecedent).

Reciprocal Pronouns
Definition:	Shows a mutual relationship
Examples:	each other (two), one another (more than two)
Usage:	We (antecedent) need each other (pronoun). The members of the team (antecedent) need one another (pronoun).

Relative Pronouns
Definition:	Begin a relative clause
Examples:	who, whom, which, that
Usage:	I give the kitten to the girl who lives next door.

Important	When you don’t know the gender of your subject, you can use a plural antecedent with a singular subject: The teacher left their books behind.

Not all antecedents are singular; some are compound.

Compound Antecedents

Compound antecedents can take three forms, and the form determines whether the antecedent takes a singular or plural pronoun.

We will start with the forms that take a singular pronoun:

Compound Antecedents That Take a Singular Pronoun

Two types of compound antecedents take singular pronouns:

1. A compound antecedent that refers to one thing:

2. Two or more antecedents joined by “or” or “nor”:

Compound Antecedents That Take a Plural Pronoun

Two types of compound antecedents take plural pronouns:

1. Two or more antecedents joined by “and”:

2. A singular antecedent followed by a plural antecedent:

The Basic Rule

All pronouns can be either singular or plural, but if the pronoun is singular, the antecedent must be singular, or vice versa:

The verb takes the singular form because the compound antecedent includes the word “or.”

Yes	Those (plural demonstrative pronoun) were (verb) good times (antecedent).

Because the pronoun and antecedent are plural, the verb must be plural.

Yes	What (interrogative pronoun) is Michael (singular antecedent) doing?

No	The students (plural antecedent) himself (singular reflexive pronoun) were (plural verb) glad to end the semester.

Because the antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be as well. “The students themselves” is correct.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes have two primary purposes: to indicate a contraction and to show possession.

To Indicate a Contraction

Contractions are combinations of two words into one word. Contractions are normally used in informal writing. The most common contractions combine these words:

• Will not = won’t
• Cannot = can’t
• Would not = wouldn’t
• Is not = isn’t
• Are not = aren’t
• It is = it’s
• Would have = would’ve
• Could have = could’ve

In most situations, it’s fine to use contractions. They are less formal, but they also give your writing a more approachable style.

You can also use apostrophes to show possession.

To Show Possession

There is the sort of possession that you understand in real life—I own a dog—and there is grammatical possession. Don’t get the two confused. Grammatical possession is not always logical because grammatically, inanimate objects and even concepts can possess things. For example:

• Heart’s desire
• Two months’ salary
• One week’s vacation
• Employees’ cafeteria

Whether you place the apostrophe before or after the “s” is determined by whether the noun doing the possessing is singular or plural.

Possession

Singular	Plural
boy’s hat	boys’ hat
animal’s DNA	animals’ DNA
company’s policy	companies’ policy
child’s game	children’s game

When working with nouns that end in “s,” even though they are singular, you can either place the apostrophe after the s or use an apostrophe s:

Possession of Words Ending in “S”

Singular	Plural	Plural
Chris’ project	Chris’s project
Boss’ day	Boss’s day	Bosses’ day
Marcus’ job	Marcus’s job
bus’ route	bus’s route	busses’ route

Quotations Marks

You may be familiar with the use of “air” quotes when you speak, but you may not be as familiar with the use of quotation marks when writing. Quotation marks have many uses:

• To set off direct quotes
• To set off some titles
• To set off words used for emphasis or in special ways
• To indicate non-English words

To Set Off Quotes

The most common use of quotation marks is to set off direct quotes—material that you take directly from another source. Basically, you place a quotation mark before the first word of the quote and after the last word of the quote:

Tip	Look closely. Did you notice that you place a comma after the phrase that introduces the quote? Also, the period at the end of the sentence is placed inside the quotation mark.

Tip	Look closely. If you place material that is not part of the quote within the middle of the quote, it is surrounded by commas.

Tip	Look closely. When you introduce a quote with a complete sentence, you place a colon (:) after the sentence that introduced the quote.

Tip	Look closely. When the introductory material comes after the quote, you place a comma inside the quotation mark after the quote.

You also use quotation marks to identify some titles.

To Set Off Titles

While titles of long works, movies, books, and plays are italicized, titles of short works, or shorter works within a larger work (such as the chapter of a book), are placed in quotation marks:

• Articles: “Beware of the Blob”
• Essays, short stories, short poems, and song lyrics: “Brooklyn Kids”
• Chapters or sections of books: “Strategies for Writing”
• Episodes of radio or TV shows: “The Chicken and the Egg”

To Set Off Words Used for Emphasis or in Special Ways

Sometimes we need to draw attention to a word, show we are defining it, or show that it is non-English:

With Other Punctuation

The type of punctuation used with quotation marks determines the placement of the punctuation and whether it is part of the quote. If the quote ends in any of the following, the mark of punctuation goes inside the quotation mark:

• Exclamation point
• Dash
• Question mark

If the exclamation point, dash, or question mark is not part of the quote, then it goes outside the quotation mark:

Colons

Colons are used to introduce quotes, lists, and explanations. Because we’ve already talked about using colons with quotes, we won’t cover it again.

To Introduce Lists and Series

A list or series is normally introduced by a complete sentence that is followed by a colon:

To Introduce Explanations

Sometimes a sentence is immediately followed by an explanation. In such a case, a colon separates the statement from its explanation:

Assess—Correctness

1. Which of the following options best describes the parts of this sentence?

Today, we will study rhetoric.

a. Today, we (subject) will study (transitive verb) rhetoric (direct object).
b. Today (subject), we will study (transitive verb) rhetoric (direct object).
c. Today, we (subject) will study (intransitive verb) rhetoric (adjective).
d. None of the above.

    2. Which of the following options best describes the parts of this sentence?

Rhetoric was taught in ancient Greece.

a. Rhetoric (subject) was (transitive verb) taught (direct object) in ancient Greece.
b. Rhetoric (subject) was (linking verb) taught (subject complement) in ancient Greece.
c. Rhetoric (subject) was (intransitive verb) taught (adjective) in ancient Greece.
d. None of the above.

    3. Which of the following options best describes the parts of this sentence?

Isocrates was one of the first teachers.

a. Isocrates (subject complement) was (linking verb) one of the first teachers (subject).
b. Isocrates (subject) was (transitive) one of the first teachers (direct object).
c. Isocrates (subject) was (linking verb) one of the first teachers (subject complement).
d. None of the above.

    4. Which of the following options best describes the parts of this sentence?

Sadly, the Greeks expelled him.

a. Sadly, the Greeks (subject) expelled (transitive verb) him (direct object).
b. Sadly (subject), the Greeks (direct object) expelled (transitive verb) him.
c. Sadly, the Greeks (subject) expelled (linking verb) him (direct object).
d. None of the above.

     5. Which of the following options best describes the parts of this sentence?

He died alone.

a. He (subject) died (transitive) alone (adjective).
b. He (subject) died (intransitive) alone (direct object).
c. He (subject) died (intransitive) alone (adjective).
d. None of the above.

6. The following is a dependent clause: When we exchange information and ideas.
   a. True
   b. False
7. The following is a dependent clause: In the workplace
   a. True
   b. False
8. The following is an independent clause: The most common communication is written communication.
   a. True
   b. False
9. The following is a clause: Such as memos and emails
   a. True
   b. False
10. The following is a phrase: Transmitting information
    a. True
    b. False
11. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
    a. Good listening skills support the sharing of information in an effective way, and will boost overall communication in the workplace.
    b. Good listening skills: support, the sharing of information in an effective way and will boost overall communication in the workplace.
    c. Good listening skills support the sharing of information in an effective way and will boost overall communication in the workplace.
    d. Good listening skills support the sharing of information, in an effective way and will boost overall communication in the workplace.
    e. None of the above.
12. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
    a. Many companies understand the importance of constructive criticism, but it’s also important to provide employees with positive feedback to boost communication and employee work effort.a. Many companies understand the importance of constructive criticism but it’s also important to provide employees with positive feedback to boost communication and employee work effort.
    b. Many companies understand the importance of constructive criticism; but, it’s also important to provide employees with positive feedback to boost communication and employee work effort.
    c. Many companies understand the importance of constructive criticism, but, it’s also important to provide employees with positive feedback to boost communication and employee work effort.
    d. None of the above.
13. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
    a. Because face-to-face meetings provide an opportunity for clarification, they encourage employees to communicate with others in a more effective way and they reduce stress.
    b. Because face-to-face meetings provide an opportunity for clarification they encourage employees to communicate with others in a more effective way, and they reduce stress.
    c. Because face-to-face meetings provide an opportunity for clarification; they encourage employees to communicate with others in a more effective way, and they reduce stress.
    d. Because face-to-face meetings provide an opportunity for clarification, they encourage employees to communicate with others in a more effective way, and they reduce stress.
    e. None of the above.
14. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
    a. When they, work well together, teams thrive.
    b. When they work well together, teams thrive.
    c. When they work well together, teams thrive
    d. When they work well together teams thrive.
    e. None of the above.
15. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
    a. Team-building exercises also boost morale.
    b. Team-building exercises also boost morale
    c. Team-building exercises also boost morale . . .
    d. Team-building ,exercises also boost morale.
    e. None of the above.

Engage—Correctness

The following passage contains errors in grammar and punctuation. How many can you find?

To complete this assignment:

1. Cut and paste the document into Microsoft Word.
2. In Microsoft Word, turn on “Track Changes.”
3. In the document, correct any errors you find with “Track Changes” turned on.
4. Save your document to your computer, and upload it to this discussion.
5. After making your revisions, view and comment on at least three of your classmates’ posts and help them identify any errors they missed.

Apply—Correctness

The following document contains several errors in grammar, punctuation, and word choice. Please find and correct each error. Follow this process:

1. Cut and paste the document into Microsoft Word.
2. Highlight each error you find.
3. Insert a blank page.
4. Correct each error and place them on the blank page.
   Note: Many of the errors you will find can be corrected using more than one method. I will accept any that are correct.
5. Save your work
6. Submit it.

Six Steps for Writing Professional Emails

If you’re not sure how to start an email, these five steps can help you craft a professional message:

Identify Your Goal

Before you write an email, ask yourself what you want the recipient to do after they’ve read it. Once you’ve determined the purpose of your email, you can ensure everything you include in your message supports this action. For example, if you want the recipient to review a report you’ve attached, let them know what the report is, why you need them to review it, what sort of feedback you need, and when you need the task completed.

Consider Your Audience

When you compose an email message, make sure your tone matches your audience; for example, if you’re emailing a business executive you’ve never met, keep the email polished and free of any jokes or informalities. On the other hand, if you’re emailing a colleague with whom you have a good relationship, you might use a less formal, more friendly approach.

Keep It Concise

Your audience might have little time to read through your email. Make it as brief as possible without leaving out key information. Try not to address too many subjects at once, as this can make your message lengthy, challenging to read, and difficult to take action on. When editing your email, take out any information that’s irrelevant to the topic you’re addressing. Use short, simple sentences by removing filler words and extraneous information. This will make your note shorter and easier to read.

Proofread Your Email

An error-free email demonstrates diligence and professionalism. Before you send an email, take a moment to check for any spelling, grammar, or syntax errors. Also, double-check to ensure you’ve included any attachments you may have referenced in your message. If it’s an important email to critical stakeholders, you might ask your direct supervisor or a trusted colleague to read over it before you send it.

Use Proper Etiquette

Include a courteous greeting and closing to sound friendly and polite. Additionally, be considerate of the recipient and their time. For example, unless it’s an emergency, avoid emailing a contact asking for something after-hours or while they’re on leave.

Remember to Follow Up

Most people receive several emails per day, so they might miss or forget to respond to your message. If the recipient hasn’t replied within two working days, consider reaching back out with a friendly follow-up email.

Jennifer Herrity’s (2023) article “How to Write a Professional Email (With Tips and Examples)” on Indeed.com is an excellent reference on writing professional emails.

Assignment Rubric

	Superior	Above Average	Average	Below Average	Failing
Content	20 points Includes all of the required elements of the assignment.	15 points Includes all of the required elements, though some are underdeveloped.	10 points Includes most of the required elements.	5 points Includes some of the required elements.	0 points Does not include all of the required elements.
Style	20 points The writing is clear and concise and avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	15 points The writing is clear and concise and generally avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	10 points The writing is mostly clear and concise and mostly avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	5 points The writing is occasionally clear and concise but does not avoid unnecessary use of passive constructions.	0 points The style is inappropriate or unclear.
Design	20 points The document has a clear visual hierarchy and the writer uses appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	15 points The document has a clear visual hierarchy and the writer uses some appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	10 points The document has a basic visual hierarchy and the writer occasionally uses appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	5 points The document’s visual hierarchy is weak and the writer doesn’t use appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	0 points The document has no visual hierarchy.
Structure	20 points The organization of the document is clear and logical and makes strong use of topic sentences and transitions.	15 points The organization of the document is generally clear and logical and makes some use of topic sentences and transitions.	10 points The document has an organization and occasionally uses topic sentences and transitions.	5 points The structure is weak and the writer rarely uses topic sentences or transitions.	0 points The document has no structure.
Correctness	20 points The document has no errors.	15 points The document has 2–3 errors.	10 points The document has 4–5 errors.	5 points The document has 6–7 errors.	0 points The document has 8 or more errors.