1 Audience

Learn—Audience

When we write, our audience should be our most important concern.

Audience Analysis

Our communication always has an audience. Sometimes we might be communicating primarily with ourselves, and other times we might communicate with one, ten, twenty, or a thousand people. To communicate effectively with everyone, we need to understand that there are two types of writing:

• Writer based
• Reader based

Each of these has purposes, but it is important to know the difference between the two.

Writer-Based Writing

When we write only for ourselves, we are engaging in writer-based writing. We call it writer based because our only audience is ourselves, so we don’t have to worry about whether anyone will understand what we write. Here are some examples of writer-based writing:

• A journal
• A grocery list
• Notes from a meeting or class
• A Post-it note reminding you to do something

When we do this type of writing, we can use our own personal shorthand, leave out details, and take shortcuts because we know what we mean. However, when we think “writer based” when we are writing for an audience other than ourselves, our communication is likely to be ineffective. For example, if you asked a colleague to summarize a meeting that you couldn’t attend, and they sent you this email, would you have a clear understanding of what occurred during the meeting and how it applies to you?

Clearly, your colleague wasn’t thinking of you as they wrote.

• What project was discussed?
• Who is M?
• Are you supposed to send M numbers?
• If so, what numbers, and when?
• What job were you assigned?

The message makes complete sense to the writer because the writer attended the meeting. Because you didn’t, your colleague should have been thinking “reader based.”

Reader-Based Writing

Reader-based writing puts the reader, not the writer, first. This textbook is an example of reader-based writing, though our notes as we wrote were writer based. When you think “reader based” you ask yourself:

• What does my reader already know?
• What doesn’t my reader know?
• What information does my reader need?
• How can I most effectively share that information with my reader?
• How will my reader feel about my message? Good or bad?

When you work from this mindset, you’ll communicate more effectively because you will be putting your readers’ needs first. Of course, this type of writing takes more time and is more difficult; that’s why we wrote this book. We want to help you become a reader-based communicator!

Become a Reader-Based Communicator

To become a reader-based communicator, you need to engage in reader-based thinking. To do this, you must get in the habit of thinking before communicating. Specifically, you need to think about your audience, purpose, and reason for communicating. These three categories are what make up the rhetorical situation. The rhetorical situation is the key to all communication.

Let’s look at an example.

Which of the following choices do you think would be best?

1. A poster on the wall above the coffeemaker in the break room
2.  A one-page paper printout that is placed in each employee’s mailbox
3. A one-page paper printout left next to each mixer
4. A one-page laminated set of instructions permanently attached to the work surface next to the mixer

If you chose d, you are correct. And our use of the rhetorical situation is what will make that clear.

AUDIENCE

Based on what we know, we can make these educated guesses:

• While the employees were very comfortable with the old mixers, which share some similarities with the new ones, they are still feeling some stress and anxiety as they learn how to use the new ones.
• The fact that the factory floor is loud, messy, and chaotic makes it more difficult for the employees to focus on instructions.
• The employees need to be able to consult the instructions quickly without leaving their mixers.
• Mixers are used to mix eggs, oil, flour, sugar, and other wet and sticky ingredients. The employees’ hands might also get messy.

PURPOSE

Both the employees and the management of the company have a similar purpose, so how can the document itself help achieve that purpose?

• In order to allow employees to consult the instructions without leaving their mixers, the instructions should be permanently affixed to the workstation. This will prevent the instructions from being lost or misplaced.
• Because the instructions are exposed to wet and sticky substances, they should be laminated. A piece of unprotected paper cannot be cleaned and would quickly become illegible.
• Because the employees’ hands will be occupied when they consult the instructions, all the information must be on the front of the page.

REASON

To ensure that the reason for writing the instructions is met, the writers should consider all of the discoveries we made previously. At this point, you might be thinking, “Sure, that kind of analysis is easy for you, but what about me?” No worries. Let’s talk about some strategies for analyzing your audience.

Consider Your Audience

Every audience is made up of real people with real needs, questions, and purposes. Your job as a reader-based communicator is to analyze your audience so you can anticipate how to meet their needs, answer their questions, and help them achieve their purpose. To do this, you need to step inside your readers’ shoes and view the world from their perspective. Once you’ve done that, you can begin answering your questions.

What Does the Audience Need?

What do your readers need from your communication?

• Information?
• Answers?
• Instructions?
• An overview?
• A confirmation?

Until you determine what your readers need, you can’t decide what to include in your communication. You can take this a step further by asking these questions:

• What do they already know?
• What don’t they know?

What Does the Audience Already Know?

To answer this question, you need to think about what information your readers have had access to:

• Did they attend the meeting?
• Did they read the report?
• Were they copied on the email?
• Are they a member of the team?

Answering these questions will help you avoid telling your readers what they already know.

What Doesn’t the Audience Know?

Again, you need to ask the same questions, but this time, you are looking for gaps in their knowledge. For example, if your reader didn’t get to read the original report, you might need to provide an overview of that report to help them fill in the gaps in your readers’ knowledge. Make sense?

Once you have determined what you need to include in your communication and what you don’t, you need to consider the best form of communication.

What’s the Most Effective Form of Communication?

When we communicate, we have lots of options for how to communicate:

• Text message
• Instant message (IM)
• Audio call
• Email
• Informal report
• Formal report
• Presentation
• Conversation

Each of these have uses.

Form	Use
Text message	To send a text message, you must have someone’s phone number. So you will only send texts to people you know well. Texts are also short, so you wouldn’t use them for complicated or important messages.
IM	If your company’s system supports instant messaging, you can use it—but again, only if you have a short message to send.
Call	Sometimes it’s best to hear someone’s voice. In those cases, a call is best, but only call people with whom you work closely. For example, never call your supervisor unless they ask you to. Phone messages work best for quick questions or confirmations: Want to grab lunch? Can you take notes during the meeting?
Informal report	Informal reports are short—one to five pages—and normally use a memo format. You can send them electronically, attach them to an email, or print and distribute them. Informal reports are best for providing more complex information that must be explained in detail. A new company policy would probably be communicated as an informal report and distributed by email, or perhaps on the company website.
Formal report	Formal reports are longer and include title pages, abstracts, and a table of contents. They often use color and are frequently printed for distribution. An example of a formal report would be a quarterly earnings report.
Presentation	Presentations give you the opportunity to connect with a larger audience on a more personal level. Presentations are a good way to get people excited about something. Companies like Apple and Google use presentations to introduce new products.
Conversation	Sometimes it’s important to keep a communication confidential. A conversation is the best way to do that. Even though the participants can tell others about the conversation, there is no written record. A good time to have a conversation would be to discuss a personnel issue.

Every time we communicate, we have a purpose for communicating, and the receiver has a purpose for listening or reading.

Purpose

We choose to engage with some forms of communication because it’s enjoyable: films, theater, websites, podcasts, and fiction. But very few of us read reports or instructions for enjoyment. We read them for a purpose:

• To learn something
• To make a decision
• To complete a task
• To make a request
• To solve a problem

For example, when I look up instructions on how to create a pivot table in Excel, I am reading those instructions for a specific purpose: to create a pivot table.

We also communicate for specific purposes, and our purpose helps us decide how to communicate effectively:

• To instruct we use a numbered list of steps
• To inform we provide specific information
• To persuade we make an argument

If you don’t know why you are communicating with someone, how can you know how to communicate?

Reason

In addition to understanding who we are communicating with and why, we also need to think about what reason prompted us to communicate in the first place:

• I haven’t received my tax refund. I need to email my accountant and ask why.
• My supervisor asked me to provide them with a summary of the meeting I attended. I need to write an informal report and attach it to an email.
• My team doesn’t know how to schedule meetings in Microsoft Teams. I need to write instructions and send them to everyone.

Another important aspect of considering your audience is remembering that we are all different.

Practice Inclusive Writing

It’s easy to make the mistake of assuming that the people to whom you are writing are just like you. Of course they love football, cats, and homemade pizza. They know you’re a good person, so they won’t get their feelings hurt if you don’t waste time asking how they are, and who doesn’t like a good joke?

But this attitude is more than writer based; it’s just plain self-centered. Thanks to technology, we can communicate with anyone, anywhere, anytime. So we have to be even more mindful of what we say and how we say it. Here are some important tips to remember.

Avoid Non-Inclusive References

When you use an expression like “let’s table that issue,” “the cat’s out of the bag,” or “piece of cake,” you are likely to confuse anyone who is not from the United States. And even within the States, expressions like “I’m fixing to write the report” can be confusing to someone who didn’t grow up in the south. The best way to avoid this problem is by avoiding these types of colloquial references. Use plain language:

• Let’s put that issue on hold.
• Everyone knows now.
• It’s easy.
• I’m about to write the report.

Understand the Other Person’s Communication Culture

This attitude also applies to how we assign gender. Everyone has the right to decide how they identify, though some people may choose not to share this information. If someone does share a preference (i.e., I use the pronouns she/her), then honor it. Never assume that specific professions are tied to a specific gender. Anyone can be a teacher, doctor, nurse, baker, etc.

Don’t make assumptions (they really can make an “ass” out of “u” and “me”) based on your personal observations. How someone looks does not logically determine what language(s) they speak, what place they call home, or what personal beliefs they might hold.

When writing to someone you know is from a different culture, you can increase your chances of a positive outcome by considering whether they come from a high- or low-context communication culture.

Low- Versus High-Context Cultures

Some cultures favor high-context communication and some favor low-context communication. The United States is a low-context culture; we prefer direct, simple communication. In other words, we don’t waste words on niceties or small talk. High-context countries, like Mexico or India, prefer indirect, subtle, less explicit communication:

• Low context: Your report is due by 5:00 pm today.
• High context: It is very important for you to finish your report as soon as possible.

If you don’t understand whether the person you are communicating with is from a high- or low-context culture, you are likely to misunderstand each other.

 

Avoid Communication Roadblocks

No matter how careful we are when we write, it’s easy for our good intentions to go sideways, so avoid these roadblocks.

Not Providing Context

Context is critical when communicating with others. Inadequate context often leads to further back-and-forth communication between all parties because the original message didn’t have clear intent.

When communicating with others, especially in an increasingly asynchronous workplace, consider adding the following items to your message:

• Who
• What
• When
• Where
• Why
• How

Adding any or all of these pieces of information can provide context that helps your audience understand your message.

Consider this example:

A low-context conversation

Anna	Hey, have you had the chance to work on that report you said you’d send me?
Bob	Hello, I worked with Peter this morning.

Bob’s message is subject to multiple interpretations.

• What did Bob work on with Peter?
• Is what Bob and Peter worked on relevant to Anna’s request? Consider these modifications:

The same conversation with more added context

Anna	Hey, have you had the chance to work on that report you said you’d send me?
Bob	Hello. No, but I worked on a similar report with Peter this morning. I’ll send you that report, which should answer most of your questions about your report. Let me know if you have any questions after consulting that report.

This version offers more information and context about Anna’s request.

Caution	Smash that send button and ask questions later? Ask any writer what step they skip when they’re in a hurry, and they will probably answer (if they’re honest) proofreading. After all, it was just a two-sentence email, what can go wrong? Shift leader can become sh&* leader AM can become PM

Capitalization

Do you ever wonder why we capitalize some words and not others? Here are the basic rules: Capitalize proper nouns: a person’s name, the name of a place, the name of a product, etc. Capitalize titles when they are followed by a name: President Biden, CEO Steven Jobs, Colonel Rosser, the president, the dean Capitalize college majors when they are languages: Spanish, engineering, computer science, Greek For headings, capitalize every word that is not a preposition, article, or coordinating conjunction

If You Don’t Know, Ask

Sometimes asking questions is a daunting prospect because we attach all kinds of baggage to the process of asking:

• I’ll look stupid
• I’ll look like I wasn’t paying attention in the meeting
• I’ll annoy the person I’m asking
• It will take too long
• I have a pretty good idea what the answer is, so why bother?

Don’t write until you are fully informed about the audience, purpose and occasion surrounding the topic you are writing about.

Assess—Audience

1. 1. What is writer-based writing?
      1. Writing intended to be read only by ourselves
      2. Writing intended to be read mainly by others
      3. All writing
   2. What is reader-based writing?
      1. Writing intended to be read mainly by others
      2. Writing intended to be read only by ourselves
      3. All writing
   3. When you write for yourself, it doesn’t matter if others can clearly understand it; however, when you write for others, the only thing that matters is if they can clearly understand it.
      1. True
      2. False
   4. What are the main things to consider when writing for your readers?
      1. How to meet your readers’ needs, answer their questions, and help them achieve their purpose
      2. What you know about the topic, how to write the information so that you understand it, and how to help your readers understand it
      3. How to physically present the information so that your readers will have it when they need it and how to make it look like a professional publishing company made the document.
   5. What do you need to consider about your readers? Select all that apply.
      1. Their needs
      2. Their knowledge
      3. Their culture
      4. The purpose and occasion for writing to them
   6. Using slang expressions is a great way to clearly convey your meaning to your readers, especially to readers of other cultures.
      1. True
      2. False
   7. What is the difference between communication in high-context and low-context cultures?
      1. Communication in low-context cultures gets straight to the point and states the message in no uncertain terms. Communication in high-context cultures includes formalities and the “real” message is somewhat implied rather than clearly stated.
      2. Communication in low-context cultures is buried in niceties and formalities. Communication in high-context cultures gets straight to the point.
      3. Communication in low-context cultures doesn’t consider the feelings of the receiver of the message. Communication in high-context cultures does, even at the risk of obscuring the message.
   8. Assume you’re working on a project with a partner. You finished your part and are waiting for them to send you their portion of the work. This is the first time you’ve worked together, but you know your partner is from a different culture and is used to high-context communication. How could you politely ask them to send you their work?
      1. In an email with a message like “I hope work on your piece of the project has been going well. I’ve got my portion done. Let me know when you’re ready and we can combine our pieces. I hope Wednesday won’t be too soon?”
      2. In an email with a message like “I’m done with my part. When will your portion be ready? We need to start merging them by Wednesday.”
      3. In a text with a message like “Ya done on the project, fam?”
   9. The only problem created by not proofreading is making yourself look unprofessional; typos couldn’t possibly affect the meaning of your message.
      1. True
      2. False
   10. You should never send an email when you’re angry.
       1. True
       2. False

Engage—Audience

In this module, we’ve been talking about the importance of audience. For this discussion you are going to respond to this scenario:

Scenario One

Your supervisor has grown increasingly frustrated by the amount of coffee being consumed by the team. In the past, you’ve used an honor system to pay for coffee and supplies like creamer, sugar, and cups, but contributions have stopped coming in even though coffee consumption is up. Your supervisor is tired of paying for this expense out of his pocket, so he wrote the following memo. Because he respects your skills as a writer, he asked you to look at it before he sends it:

Memo

Your Task

For this discussion, you will write a memo to John offering constructive criticism. Before you write your memo, complete the following steps:

1. Identify three specific examples within the memo that demonstrate that the writer wasn’t considering his audience as he wrote.
2. Locate examples from your readings to support your criticism.
3. Include specific examples from the memo to support your suggestions.
4. Follow best practices when writing your memo.

Apply—Audience

In this module, we’ve been talking about the importance of audience. In our discussion, you had the chance to practice writing a memo in response to someone else’s writing. For this assignment, you will do the same thing, so remember to apply the feedback I gave you. You are going to respond to this scenario.

Scenario Two

No one has enjoyed COVID, but over the past eighteen months, the eight members of your team have enjoyed the freedom of working from home. Everyone agrees that not having to commute to the office saves them time, which makes them more productive. They also like the money they save on gas. Several people also feel like their opportunity to eat a healthy meal at lunchtime, followed by a short walk, has improved their health. You agree with your team and would be happy continuing to work from home. Unfortunately, your department supervisor feels differently. She is planning to have each of the three teams in her department begin working from the office in two weeks. Because you are the leader of the writing team, she asked you to read her memo before she sends it out to everyone:

Supervisor Memo Example

Your Task

For this assignment, you will write a memo to Jane offering constructive criticism. Before you write your memo, complete the following steps:

1. Identify three specific examples within the memo that demonstrate that the writer wasn’t considering her audience as she wrote
2. Locate examples from your class readings to support your criticism.
3. Include specific examples from the memo to support your suggestions.
4. Follow best practices when writing your memo.

Assignment Rubric

	Superior	Above Average	Average	Below Average	Failing
Content	20 points Includes all of the required elements of the assignment.	15 points Includes all of the required elements, though some are underdeveloped.	10 points Includes most of the required elements.	5 points Includes some of the required elements.	0 points Does not include all of the required elements.
Style	20 points The writing is clear and concise and avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	15 points The writing is clear and concise and generally avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	10 points The writing is mostly clear and concise and mostly avoids unnecessary use of passive constructions.	5 points The writing is occasionally clear and concise but does not avoid unnecessary use of passive constructions.	0 points The style is inappropriate or unclear.
Design	20 points The document has a clear visual hierarchy and the writer uses appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	15 points The document has a clear visual hierarchy and the writer uses some appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	10 points The document has a basic visual hierarchy and the writer occasionally uses appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	5 points The document’s visual hierarchy is weak and the writer doesn’t use appropriate methods of presentation such as lists and tables.	0 points The document has no visual hierarchy.
Structure	20 points The organization of the document is clear and logical and makes strong use of topic sentences and transitions.	15 points The organization of the document is generally clear and logical and makes some use of topic sentences and transitions.	10 points The document has organization and occasionally uses topic sentences and transitions.	5 points The structure is weak and the writer rarely uses topic sentences or transitions.	0 points The document has no structure.
Correctness	20 points The document has no errors.	15 points The document has 2–3 errors.	10 points The document has 4–5 errors.	5 points The document has 6–7 errors.	0 points The document has 8 or more errors.